Engineering Plastics and Elastomers for Wheels, Rollers, and Wear Parts

Cast nylon, acetal, UHMW polyethylene, phenolic laminate, PEEK and rubber compounds replace steel in rollers, wheels, chain parts, guides and wear strips where quiet running, corrosion resistance, low friction or freedom from lubrication matter more than load capacity. UTEC Industrial designs, engineers, machines, fabricates, and installs custom material handling systems for aerospace and heavy industry from its Spokane Valley, WA facility, integrating Allen-Bradley PLC and motion control with in-house CNC machining, heat treating, and stress relief. This article compares the main polymer families on hardness, wear, pressure-velocity limits, water, temperature and expansion, using suppliers' data sheets, chain makers' catalogs, ASTM and ISO publisher pages and two tribology studies. Polymer parts sit inside the build chain, design → engineering → parts machining → fabrication → assembly → weld fatigue → stress relief → drives → controls → tuning → monitoring, where the fabricated frame sets their alignment and the drives, controls and monitoring decide how hard and how hot they run.

Which plastics and elastomers are used for wheels, rollers, chain and wear parts?

A resin maker's literature names the handling uses. Celanese lists liners for silos, hoppers and chutes, conveyor troughs and flights, wear strips, slide plates, and unlubricated bearings and bushings among the typical applications of UHMW-PE, and chain conveyor wear plates for the pulp and paper industry among its other applications.

The families this article compares are:

• Cast nylon 6. Ensinger says cast plates and rods reach substantially larger dimensions than extrusion allows, with a lower intrinsic stress level than extruded stock.
• Extruded polyamide (PA 6, PA 66) and acetal (POM). ASTM classifies both as molding and extrusion materials, under D6779 and D6778.
• UHMW polyethylene. ASTM D4020 defines it as linear polymers of ethylene with a relative viscosity of 1.44 or greater. Ensinger notes that it can only be processed by pressing into stock shapes or by direct molding.
• Phenolic laminates and PEEK, covered in a later answer.
• Elastomers: natural rubber, SBR, nitrile and urethane.

None of the three ASTM documents is a selection or design guide. D6779 and D6778 each say the callout "is not intended for the selection of materials", and D4020 says that providing specific engineering data for design purposes is not its function (Ensinger 2012, pp. 9 and 14; Celanese 2015, pp. 3–4; ASTM D6779-23; ASTM D6778-20; ASTM D4020-18).

How do cast nylon, acetal and UHMW-PE compare on a supplier's data sheet?

One supplier's sheets, on one template, allow a side-by-side view. Mitsubishi Chemical Advanced Materials (MCAM) publishes these indicative values for its unmodified cast nylon 6, general-purpose acetal copolymer and virgin UHMW-PE grades (the cast nylon 6 sheet is headed "Preliminary product datasheet"):

Property (MCAM test basis)	Cast nylon 6 (preliminary sheet)	Acetal copolymer	UHMW-PE
Hardness, ISO column	Rockwell M 88 (ISO 2039-2)	Rockwell M 84 (ISO 2039-2)	Shore D 60 (ISO 868)
Hardness, ASTM column	Rockwell M 85 (ASTM D785)	Rockwell M 88 (ASTM D785)	Shore D 66 (ASTM D2240)
Tensile strength (ISO 527)	88 MPa	66 MPa	19 MPa
Continuous allowable service temperature in air, 20,000 h	90 °C	100 °C	80 °C
Minimum service temperature	−30 °C	−50 °C	−200 °C
Water absorption at saturation in 23 °C water, ISO column	6.5 %	0.80 %	0.1 %
Wear rate, pin-on-disk	12 µm/km	45 µm/km	8 µm/km
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, 23–100 °C	90 µm/(m·K)	125 µm/(m·K)	200 µm/(m·K)

The test conditions travel with the numbers. Hardness is measured on 10 mm (0.4 in) thick specimens. The wear rate comes from a pin-on-disk procedure similar to Test Method A of ISO 7148-2, at 3 MPa and 0.33 m/s against a steel plate of Ra 0.7–0.9 µm, at 23 °C and 50 % relative humidity. The continuous service temperature is defined over a minimum of 20,000 hours, after which tensile strength measured at 23 °C has fallen by about 50 %.

MCAM calls the table "mainly to be used for comparison purposes" and says the values describe dry material and "should not be used to establish material specification limits nor used alone as the basis of design" (MCAM cast nylon 6, acetal copolymer and UHMW-PE data sheets, 2026, p. 1 and notes 3, 14 and 18).

Why can't a Rockwell M number be compared with a Shore D number?

The two numbers come from different test methods. ASTM D785 says Rockwell numbers for plastics are "always quoted with a scale symbol" that represents the indenter size, load and dial scale, and its Significance section warns that two dial readings on different scales "may be obtained on the same material, both of which may be technically correct". Adjacent scales overlap, but D785 says "a correlation table is not desirable", because other plastics may not give corresponding readings owing to differences in elasticity, creep and shear. The iso.org abstract for ISO 2039-2 names the Rockwell M, L and R scales for plastics, and adds that for materials with high creep and recovery the load timing has a considerable effect on the result.

ZwickRoell, a tester maker, describes the methods as follows:

• Rockwell (ASTM D785, ISO 2039-2). Measures the permanent indentation depth at a defined preload after the test force is reduced again. ZwickRoell's ASTM D785 table gives scale M as a 10 kg preload and 100 kg test load on a 0.25 in ball.
• Ball indentation (ISO 2039-1). Measures the depth under load, with the test force chosen so that the depth after 30 s falls between 0.15 and 0.35 mm.

MCAM's preliminary cast nylon 6 sheet reports Rockwell M 88 by ISO 2039-2 and M 85 by ASTM D785 for the same grade, and its UHMW-PE sheet reports Shore D (60 by ISO 868, 66 by ASTM D2240) and no Rockwell value. As engineering reasoning, the method has to travel with the number, and no common scale ranks UHMW-PE against the nylon and acetal. ASTM D2240 itself recommends D785 for specification purposes for materials outside its own scope. Durometer scales are covered in depth in the companion article on urethane tread hardness (ASTM D785-23, §§4.1–4.2 and 4.6; ISO 2039-2:1987; ZwickRoell 2026; MCAM data sheets, 2026; ASTM D2240, 2021, §4.1).

Does a harder plastic wear less?

Not by any rule a hardness test supports. ASTM D785 says its results "are not generally considered a measure of the abrasion or wear resistance" of the plastics tested. Wear tests themselves rank materials only under their own conditions:

• ASTM G137 (block-on-ring). It says "the specific wear rate is not a material property" and will differ with test conditions and geometries.
• ASTM D3702 (thrust washer). It warns that if the test conditions are changed, "the relative value of one material with respect to another may also change".
• Ensinger. Tribological values "must always be considered in the light of the test system used", rough surfaces of harder sliding partners such as steel "are more likely to cause wear in softer sliding partners", and service-life calculations call for application-specific tests.

Two published comparisons illustrate this. In Celanese's Figure 1, which gives volume loss relative to UHMWPE = 100, cast nylon scores 150, a single bar labelled "Stainless Steel and Nylon 6/6" 160, acetal copolymer 700 and phenolic 2500. The figure does not name its abrasion test. On MCAM's sheets, UHMW-PE has the lowest tensile strength of the three grades (19 MPa against 66 and 88 MPa) and also the lowest pin-on-disk wear rate (8 µm/km against 45 µm/km for acetal and 12 µm/km on the preliminary cast nylon sheet). As engineering reasoning, neither hardness nor strength stands in for a wear test run under the part's own load, speed, counterface and contamination (ASTM D785-23, §4.4; ASTM G137-24, §5.1; ASTM D3702-24, §5.1; Ensinger 2012, p. 55; Celanese 2015, p. 1, Fig. 1; MCAM data sheets, 2026).

How do pressure, speed and heat (PV) limit polymer rollers, bushings and wear strips?

ASTM D3702 frames its wear test around "combinations of pressure and velocity that fall below the PV (pressure x velocity) limit of the test material", and its Table 1 footnote says that for many applications a wear rate above 1.0 × 10⁻⁵ in./h (2.5 × 10⁻⁷ m/h) is considered excessive. Sukumaran's thesis on polymer–steel rolling contact names the mechanism: poor thermal conductivity "could cause melting of polymers from the accumulation of heat in tribological contact". Ensinger says system-related heat from friction must be considered alongside external heat.

Published limits differ by source and test:

• MCAM, cylindrical sleeve bearings. Limiting PV is 0.13 / 0.08 MPa·m/s at 0.1 / 1 m/s for cast nylon 6 (preliminary sheet), 0.16 / 0.1 for acetal copolymer and 0.08 / 0.05 for UHMW-PE.
• MCAM, in-house thrust-washer method at 100 fpm. Limiting PV is 3,000 ft·lb/in²·min for cast nylon 6 and UHMW-PE and 2,700 for acetal. The test steps up the pressure until the plastic deforms or a temperature limit is reached, and a 4:1 safety factor is already applied to the posted value.
• Celanese, UHMWPE bushings and bearings. Dry PV values should be limited to 4 N·m/mm²·min; load and speed limits are 10 MPa and 120 m/min, and bearing temperatures below 40 °C should be maintained.

As this article's own arithmetic, dividing MCAM's sleeve-bearing PV by speed gives the allowable pressure at that speed: at 0.1 m/s, 0.13 ÷ 0.1 = 1.3 MPa for cast nylon 6, 1.6 MPa for acetal and 0.8 MPa for UHMW-PE; at 1 m/s the same grades fall to 0.08, 0.1 and 0.05 MPa. By the same arithmetic, Celanese's 4 N·m/mm²·min equals 4 MPa·m/min, or about 0.067 MPa·m/s. As engineering reasoning, the two suppliers do not state a common test, so their figures are not interchangeable (ASTM D3702-24, §5.1 and Table 1 note A; Sukumaran 2014, §1.3, p. 6; Ensinger 2012, pp. 70–71; MCAM data sheets, 2026, note 21; Celanese 2015, pp. 3–4).

What does water do to nylon, and when are acetal or UHMW-PE the better choice?

Water changes nylon's size and strength. Ensinger says polyamides "tend to absorb higher amounts of moisture compared to other thermoplastics", which gives dimensional changes and lower strength values in finished parts, so for components with narrow tolerances the suitability of polyamide "must be examined beforehand". MCAM's saturation figures in 23 °C water, from the ISO column of its sheets, are 6.5 % for cast nylon 6 (7 % by ASTM D570; preliminary sheet), against 0.80 % for acetal copolymer and 0.1 % for UHMW-PE. Ensinger's 24 h / 96 h uptake at 23 °C (DIN EN ISO 62), on material tested directly after machining, is 0.2 / 0.4 % for cast PA 6 and 0.3 / 0.6 % for extruded PA 6, against 0.05 / 0.1 % for acetal (POM-C).

Mens and de Gee tested six polymers, with the same base materials filled with PTFE or with PTFE plus glass fibre, against steel in air and in water (AISI 316 steel rings in water). In water, "PTFE did not function at all", and with a few exceptions glass fibre produced unfavourable effects in air as well as in water. PA 66, PA 66-PTFE and POM reached specific wear rates of 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁵ m³/N·m or lower at friction coefficients well below 0.20. The authors conclude that these "should form the first choice for application in water, under conditions where hydrodynamic film formation is not expected to occur". They add that materials which did less well "may nevertheless be applicable quite well under certain practical conditions"; UHMW-PE and cast PA 6 were not tested.

For chain, Tsubaki says wear of engineered-plastic chains "may increase if they are used in water", and that in wet applications stainless steel chains wear less than engineered-plastic chains. As engineering reasoning, a nylon roller or bushing machined to a dry fit can grow in wet service, so its clearance is checked at the moisture it will reach in use (Ensinger 2012, pp. 62 and 88–90; MCAM data sheets, 2026; Mens and de Gee 1991, Abstract and §5; Tsubaki 1997, Basics §5.4.1, p. 59).

How hot and how cold can polymer wheels, rollers and chain run?

It depends on which temperature the data sheet reports:

• Continuous allowable service temperature (MCAM). 90 °C for cast nylon 6 (preliminary sheet), 100 °C for acetal copolymer and 80 °C for UHMW-PE, each defined over 20,000 hours with about a 50 % loss of tensile strength. MCAM notes that the maximum allowable temperature depends in many cases on the duration and magnitude of the mechanical stresses.
• Heat deflection temperature (MCAM, method A, 1.8 MPa). 42 °C for UHMW-PE, below its own 80 °C continuous rating. ASTM D648 says deflection-temperature data "are not intended for use in design or predicting endurance at elevated temperatures". As engineering reasoning, a low deflection temperature and a higher service rating therefore do not conflict.
• Minimum service temperature (MCAM). −30 °C for cast nylon 6, −50 °C for acetal and −200 °C for UHMW-PE, based on unfavourable impact conditions, so MCAM says they may not be the absolute practical limit.
• Celanese. UHMWPE's characteristics can be maintained from −269 °C to 90 °C, "and even higher for short periods of time".
• Tsubaki. Standard engineered-plastic chain can be run between −20 °C and 80 °C; at higher temperatures "it may become soft and not keep its shape", and at lower ones "it may become brittle". Its super-engineered-plastic specification may be used for continuous driving up to 250 °C, in a limited range of chain types and sizes.

Expansion is the second thermal limit. Rexnord's 2014 catalog gives coefficients of linear expansion, in its column "per 10⁷ °C" (that is, × 10⁻⁷ per °C), of 800–900 for plastics such as acetal, acrylic and nylon (values that may be half as large if glass-reinforced), 1,600–2,200 for polyethylene and 101–121 for low-carbon steel. As this article's arithmetic and engineering reasoning, a 3,000 mm polyethylene wear strip warming by 30 °C grows 3,000 × 30 × (1,600 to 2,200) × 10⁻⁷ = 14.4 to 19.8 mm, against 0.9 to 1.1 mm for a low-carbon steel strip, so its fastening slots and end gaps are sized for the polymer's movement (MCAM data sheets, 2026, notes 3 and 4; ASTM D648-18, §5.1; Celanese 2015, p. 4; Tsubaki 1997, Basics §5.2, p. 58; Rexnord 5050, 2014, p. 128).

When do polymer rollers and wheels beat steel, and when do they lose?

They win on noise, corrosion and unlubricated friction. Renold's 2010 guide says synthetic rollers of nylon or other plastics "can be used where either noise or corrosion is a major problem". Tsubaki's Table 2.4 gives an unlubricated rolling friction coefficient of 0.08 for engineered-plastic rollers on steel rails, against 0.12 for steel rollers on RF double-pitch chain and 0.13–0.15 on large-pitch conveyor chain.

They lose on load. Rexnord's allowable bearing pressure between roller and bushing is 100 psi for non-metallic against carburized steel or heat-treated stainless steel, compared with 1,200–1,400 psi for case-hardened steel against untreated steel, white iron or case-hardened steel. Those figures are for "ideal conditions", meaning slow speeds in non-gritty service with lubricated bearings. Tsubaki also says that "sometimes, engineered plastic rollers may be affected by speed". Sukumaran's study gives the damage modes in polymer–steel rolling:

• Partial slip. In polymer rolling, partial slip is "unavoidable", due among other causes to local deformation, surface damage and misalignment of components.
• Micro-pitting and grooving. In twin-disc tests of 30 % glass-fibre polyamide against steel, pure rolling gave micro-pitting, while partial sliding gave abrasive grooves.
• Counterface roughness. The initial roughness of the steel counterface (Rpk) outweighed the slip ratio in its effect on wear.
• Limits of the material. Polymers bring "poor load carrying capabilities, ageing characteristics and thermal softening behaviour".

As engineering reasoning, a polymer wheel or roller suits light-to-moderate loads in noisy, wet or washdown areas, while the heavy, hot or gritty duty of a crane or transfer car stays with steel wheels. For a polymer sheave running steel wire rope, no citable source on rope life or rope inspection was found for this article; as engineering reasoning, the rope and sheave makers' ratings are the ones to ask for. Steel groove profiles matched to wire rope are set out in the sheave groove profile article (Renold REN16/ENG/10.10, p. 28; Tsubaki 1997, Basics Table 2.4, p. 25, and §2.3.3, p. 27; Rexnord 5050, 2014, p. 104; Sukumaran 2014, Summary and §1.3).

What do plastic conveyor chain and plastic-sleeve chain give up against steel?

They give up tension capacity and roller load in exchange for lower friction, weight and noise. Tsubaki's figures for small-pitch plastic-sleeve chain, against the same-sized all-steel chain with lubrication, are:

• Capacity. One-sixth the maximum allowable tension, and about one-third the allowable R-roller load.
• Friction and weight. An R-roller friction coefficient of 0.08 against 0.12, and 30 % less weight.
• Noise. Sprocket engagement 5 to 7 dB quieter.

For large-pitch RF chain with plastic rollers and plastic sleeves, Tsubaki's example for one chain size, with an 8-tooth sprocket, gives a maximum allowable load of 5.20 kN against 9.80 kN for the standard type, a 47 % reduction. Rolling friction is also 47 % lower (0.08 against 0.15 unlubricated), and Tsubaki concludes that the allowable conveyed-object weight on the conveyor remains the same. Tsubaki says this chain "is not suitable for conveying bulk materials (such as grains)" or rough handling.

A national chain standard recognizes all-plastic designs. ASME B29.17M covers hinge-type flat-top conveyor chain and describes the plastic type as similar to the steel type except that the links are molded of plastic, with pins usually made of stainless steel. CEMA's Technical Report 2018-01 lists plastic chains among the general chain types it defines. Urethane-padded or polymer-faced steel chain is, as engineering practice, specified from the chain maker's own ratings for the pad and the base chain, since no neutral data on it was found for this article (Tsubaki 1997, Applications §2.1.3, pp. 130–131, and §6.2.3, p. 204; ASME B29.17M-1998, S2025; CEMA Technical Report 2018-01).

Where do UHMW-PE and other plastics belong as chain guides, wear strips and liners?

They belong where sliding friction matters and impact and grit are limited. Rexnord gives a chain friction factor of 0.15–0.4 for chain sliding on UHMW polyethylene, against 0.3–0.5 for chain sliding unlubricated on a steel track. Tsubaki's Table 2.3 gives engineered-plastic top plates on UHMW rails 0.25 unlubricated and 0.12 lubricated, against 0.35 and 0.20 for steel on steel. Tsubaki says guide rails for engineered-plastic chains are usually 304 stainless steel with a good finish, cast nylon, or UHMW polyethylene. For chain running at high speed with fluctuating loads, it says a guide shoe of NBR rubber or UHMW polyethylene "will help reduce vibrations".

Both chain makers set the same boundary. Rexnord says non-metallic liners such as wood and plastic "may result in wear strip economy, but should not be used where severe impacting loads exist or under extremely dirty conditions". Renold says low-friction plastics can be used where chains slide on the plate edges "but should not be used where severe impact loads or abrasive conditions exist". Celanese adds two installation cautions for UHMWPE:

• Creep. An allowance for creep or cold flow, "such as 2% at 2 MPa" at 20 °C, should be made.
• UV. Outdoor ultraviolet light can lead to cracking within a one-year period unless UV stabilizers are added.

As engineering reasoning, abrasive bulk service that rules out a polymer liner moves the choice to hardened steel or overlay plate (Rexnord 5050, 2014, pp. 105 and 107; Tsubaki 1997, Basics Table 2.3, p. 25 and p. 64, Applications §4.1.2, p. 156; Renold REN16/ENG/10.10, p. 18; Celanese 2015, pp. 3–4).

How do natural rubber, SBR and nitrile compare with urethane for pads and treads?

The only side-by-side ratings found for this article are Parker's, and they describe seal compounds, not treads. In Table 2-2 of Parker's 2007 O-Ring Handbook, on a Poor / Fair / Good / Excellent scale:

Elastomer (Parker seal-compound ratings)	Abrasion	Oil	Ozone	Heat
Natural rubber	E	P	P	F
SBR	G	P	P	FG
Nitrile (NBR)	G	E	P	G
Polyurethane	E	G	E	F

Parker also says that swell "is almost always accompanied by a decrease in hardness", and that excessive swell leads to reduced abrasion and tear resistance. As engineering reasoning, oil exposure counts against natural rubber and SBR pads on Parker's ratings even where their abrasion rating is good.

ASTM D2000 designates vulcanized rubber materials by type, based on resistance to heat aging, and by class, based on resistance to swelling in oil. It is intended for, but not limited to, rubber products for automotive applications; it notes that it may serve many of the needs of other industries, and detailed product specifications take precedence over it. Urethane treads on wheels, sheaves and rollers, including their hardness testing and failure modes, are the subject of the companion urethane article and are not repeated here (Parker ORD 5700, 2007, Table 2-2, p. 2-9, and §2.4.10, p. 2-13; ASTM D2000-18, 2024).

Where do phenolic laminates and PEEK fit?

ASTM D709 covers laminated thermosetting materials of two or more plies of reinforcing material (cellulose paper, cotton fabric, glass fabric or synthetic fiber fabric) bonded by a thermosetting synthetic resin, available as sheets, rolled and molded tubes, and molded rods. Norplex-Micarta's NP310 bulletin describes a canvas machining grade "for structural and mechanical applications" with better impact strength than phenolic paper grades. It gives these typical values:

• Rockwell hardness. M 100 (ASTM D785, 0.250 in build-up).
• Temperature index. 115 °C electrical and 125 °C mechanical (UL 746B). Norplex calls the index "a recommendation only" and says the maximum operating temperature depends on the application and should be investigated prior to use.

Norplex lists the grade as certifiable to ASTM D709 Type II Grade C. Celanese's Figure 1 puts phenolic at 2500 relative volume loss against UHMWPE's 100, in an unnamed abrasion test.

For heat, PEEK stands apart. Ensinger's tables give unfilled PEEK a ball indentation hardness of 253 MPa (ISO 2039-1), service temperatures of 260 °C long-term and 300 °C short-term, and water uptake of 0.02 / 0.03 % at 24 h / 96 h, all measured directly after machining. In Mens and de Gee's dry-air tests against steel, PA 66-PTFE, POM-PTFE, PETP-PTFE and PEEK-PTFE reached specific wear rates well below 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁵ m³/N·m at friction coefficients of the order of 0.15–0.20. Of those four, the authors note that PEEK-PTFE has the additional advantage of sustaining a relatively high temperature, T* = 200 °C (ASTM D709-25; Norplex-Micarta NP310, 2022; Celanese 2015, Fig. 1; Ensinger 2012, pp. 88–96; Mens and de Gee 1991, §5).

How are polymer rollers, wheels, chain and wear strips monitored in service?

ISO 17359 gives guidelines for the general procedures to consider when setting up a condition monitoring programme, and says it is applicable to all machines. The polymer-specific signals below are this article's engineering practice, built on earlier answers, not requirements of the cited sources:

• Temperature. An infrared or contact reading at polymer bushings and sliding strips, checked against the supplier's limit, such as Celanese's 40 °C bearing temperature for unlubricated UHMWPE bearings.
• Drive load. Motor current or drive torque trended at a known rate. A rising load can show swollen nylon bushings, packed debris or a worn guide.
• Motion. A zero-speed sensor on a driven roller or chain tail shaft, to catch slip or a stalled polymer roller.
• Wear and expansion. Scheduled measurement of wear-strip thickness and of end gaps against the expansion allowance.

Imaging has been tried in the laboratory: Sukumaran's thesis developed an online vision system that acquired micrographs of a polymer–steel rolling contact at 35,000 frames per second with a 375 ns shutter time, and the author says the approach opens a new avenue for real-time micrographs in future condition monitoring of machines and machine components.

UTEC Industrial outsources polyurethane-coated wheels and sheaves, and polymer rollers and chains, and incorporates them into the equipment it builds. As engineering reasoning, the fabricated frame and machined seats set the alignment, which Sukumaran names among the causes of partial slip, and the drives and controls set the speed and running temperature the polymer part sees.

Inspection inside a guard or at a nip point brings in the federal rules. 29 CFR 1910.212(a)(1) requires one or more methods of machine guarding to protect the operator and other employees in the machine area from hazards such as ingoing nip points and rotating parts. 29 CFR 1910.147 covers the servicing and maintenance of machines and equipment in which the unexpected energization or start up of the machines or equipment, or release of stored energy, could cause injury to employees (ISO 17359:2018; Celanese 2015, pp. 3–4; Sukumaran 2014, Summary and §1.3; OSHA 29 CFR 1910.212-1974; OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147-1989).

Related Articles

• Polyurethane Tread Hardness and Durometer for Wheels, Sheaves, and Rollers — urethane tread hardness, durometer scales, and tread failure modes
• Conveyor Chain Selection for Wet, Abrasive, and High-Temperature Service — steel conveyor chain choices for wet, abrasive, and hot service
• Welded Steel, Drag, and Engineering-Class Chain: ASME B29 Explained — the steel engineering-class chain families under ASME B29
• AR400 vs. AR500 vs. Chromium-Carbide Overlay: Wear Liners for Bulk Service — steel wear liners for abrasive bulk service
• Alloy Steel Grades for Crane Wheels: Material Selection Guide — alloy steel grades on the metal side of wheel material choice

References

• Ensinger GmbH. Engineering Plastics – The Manual (brochure E9911075A011GB). Ensinger, 2012.
• Celanese Corporation. Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE), reprinted from Engineered Materials Handbook, Vol. 2: Engineering Plastics (GUR-003). Celanese, 2015.
• Mitsubishi Chemical Advanced Materials. Nylatron MC 907/Ertalon 6 PLA PA6 (product data sheet). MCAM, 2026 (undated web documentation, accessed October 2026).
• Mitsubishi Chemical Advanced Materials. Acetron GP/Ertacetal C POM-C (product data sheet). MCAM, 2026 (undated web documentation, accessed October 2026).
• Mitsubishi Chemical Advanced Materials. TIVAR 1000 Virgin UHMW-PE (product data sheet). MCAM, 2026 (undated web documentation, accessed October 2026).
• Norplex-Micarta. NP310 Technical Data Bulletin (Grade C phenolic canvas). Norplex-Micarta, 2022.
• Parker Hannifin Corporation. Parker O-Ring Handbook (ORD 5700). Parker Hannifin, 2007.
• ZwickRoell. ASTM D785 | ISO 2039-1 | ISO 2039-2 Plastic Hardness (web page). ZwickRoell, 2026 (undated web documentation, accessed October 2026).
• Mens JWM, de Gee AWJ (1991). "Friction and wear behaviour of 18 polymers in contact with steel in environments of air and water." Wear, 149(1-2), 255-268.
• Sukumaran J. Vision Assisted Tribography of Rolling-Sliding Contact of Polymer-Steel Pairs, PhD thesis. Ghent University, 2014. ISBN 978-90-8578-692-4.
• Otoshi K (supervising ed.), Kanehira M (ed.). The Complete Guide to Chain, 1st English ed. U.S. Tsubaki, 1997. ISBN 0-9658932-0-0.
• Rexnord 5050: Rexnord and Link-Belt Engineered Steel Chains (Conveyor, Elevator & Drive Chains Catalog). Rexnord, 2014.
• Renold REN16/ENG/10.10: Conveyor Chain Installation, Maintenance & Designer Guide. Renold Power Transmission, 2010.
• ASTM D785-23: Standard Test Method for Rockwell Hardness of Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials. ASTM International, 2023.
• ISO 2039-2:1987: Plastics — Determination of hardness — Part 2: Rockwell hardness. International Organization for Standardization, 1987.
• ASTM D2240-15(2021): Standard Test Method for Rubber Property—Durometer Hardness. ASTM International, 2021.
• ASTM D4020-18: Standard Specification for Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene Molding and Extrusion Materials. ASTM International, 2018.
• ASTM D6779-23: Standard Classification System for and Basis of Specification for Polyamide Molding and Extrusion Materials (PA). ASTM International, 2023.
• ASTM D6778-20: Standard Classification System and Basis for Specification for Polyoxymethylene Molding and Extrusion Materials (POM). ASTM International, 2020.
• ASTM D709-25: Standard Specification for Laminated Thermosetting Materials. ASTM International, 2025.
• ASTM D2000-18(2024)e1: Standard Classification System for Rubber Products in Automotive Applications. ASTM International, 2024.
• ASTM D3702-24: Standard Test Method for Wear Rate and Coefficient of Friction of Materials in Self-Lubricated Rubbing Contact Using a Thrust Washer Testing Machine. ASTM International, 2024.
• ASTM G137-24: Standard Test Method for Ranking Resistance of Plastic Materials to Sliding Wear Using a Block-On-Ring Configuration. ASTM International, 2024.
• ASTM D648-18: Standard Test Method for Deflection Temperature of Plastics Under Flexural Load in the Edgewise Position. ASTM International, 2018.
• ASME B29.17M-1998 (S2025): Hinge Type Flat Top Conveyor Chains and Sprocket Teeth. ASME, 1998.
• CEMA Conveyor Chain & Sprocket Committee. Conveyor Chain Types & Definitions (Technical Report 2018-01). CEMA, 2018.
• ISO 17359:2018: Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics of Machines — General Guidelines. International Organization for Standardization, 2018.
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.212-1974: General Requirements for All Machines. U.S. Department of Labor, 1974.
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.147-1989: The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout). Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 1989.

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